Pre-proglucagon is a 158 amino acid precursor polypeptide that is differentially processed in the tissues to form a number of structurally related proglucagon-derived peptides, including glucagon (Glu), glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), glucagon-like peptide-2 (GLP-2), and oxyntomodulin (OXM). These molecules are involved in a wide variety of physiological functions, including glucose homeostasis, insulin secretion, gastric emptying and intestinal growth, as well as regulation of food intake.
Glucagon is a 29-amino acid peptide that corresponds to amino acids 53 to 81 of pre-proglucagon. Oxyntomodulin (OXM) is a 37 amino acid peptide which includes the complete 29 amino acid sequence of glucagon with an octapeptide carboxyterminal extension (amino acids 82 to 89 of pre-proglucagon, and termed “intervening peptide 1” or IP-1. The major biologically active fragment of GLP-1 is produced as a 30-amino acid, C-terminally amidated peptide that corresponds to amino acids 98 to 127 of pre-proglucagon.
Glucagon helps maintain the level of glucose in the blood by binding to glucagon receptors on hepatocytes, causing the liver to release glucose—stored in the form of glycogen—through glycogenolysis. As these stores become depleted, glucagon stimulates the liver to synthesize additional glucose by gluconeogenesis. This glucose is released into the bloodstream, preventing the development of hypoglycemia.
GLP-1 decreases elevated blood glucose levels by improving glucose-stimulated insulin secretion and promotes weight loss chiefly through decreasing food intake.
OXM is released into the blood in response to food ingestion and in proportion to meal calorie content. OXM has been shown to suppress appetite and inhibit food intake in humans (Cohen et al, Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism, 88, 4696-4701, 2003; WO 2003/022304). In addition to those anorectic effects, which are similar to those of GLP-1, OXM must also affect body weight by another mechanism, since rats treated with oxyntomodulin show less body weight gain than pair-fed rats (Bloom, Endocrinology 2004, 145, 2687). Treatment of obese rodents with OXM also improves their glucose tolerance (Parlevliet et al, Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, 294, E142-7, 2008) and suppresses body weight gain (WO 2003/022304).
OXM activates both the glucagon and the GLP-1 receptors with a two-fold higher potency for the glucagon receptor over the GLP-1 receptor, but is less potent than native glucagon and GLP-1 on their respective receptors. Human glucagon is also capable of activating both receptors, though with a strong preference for the glucagon receptor over the GLP-1 receptor. GLP-1 on the other hand is not capable of activating glucagon receptors. The mechanism of action of oxyntomodulin is not well understood. In particular, it is not known whether some of the extrahepatic effects of the hormone are mediated through the GLP-1 and glucagon receptors, or through one or more unidentified receptors.
Other peptides have been shown to bind and activate both the glucagon and the GLP-1 receptor (Hjort et al, Journal of Biological Chemistry, 269, 30121-30124, 1994) and to suppress body weight gain and reduce food intake (see, for example, WO 2006/134340, WO 2007/100535, WO 2008/10101, WO 2008/152403, WO 2009/155257, WO 2009/155258, WO2010/070252, WO2010/070253, WO2010/070255, WO2010/070251, WO2011/006497, WO2011/160630, WO2011/160633).
Obesity is a globally increasing health problem is associated with various diseases, particularly cardiovascular disease (CVD), type 2 diabetes, obstructive sleep apnea, certain types of cancer, and osteoarthritis. As a result, obesity has been found to reduce life expectancy. According to 2005 projections by the World Health Organization there are 400 million adults (age>15) classified as obese worldwide. In the US, obesity is now believed to be the second-leading cause of preventable death after smoking.
The rise in obesity drives an increase in diabetes, and approximately 90% of people with type 2 diabetes may be classified as obese. There are 246 million people worldwide with diabetes, and by 2025 it is estimated that 380 million will have diabetes. Many have additional cardiovascular risk factors, including high/aberrant LDL and triglycerides and low HDL.